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Avid Pro Tools. Consequently, CET is disabled since v5. To guarantee the manual symbol lookup worked, we only use up to v5. Unfortunately, since Linux v5. Kprobes inserts a breakpoint at the entry of function by replacing the first bytes of the probed instruction.

When a CPU hits the breakpoint, registers are stored, and the control will pass to Kprobes. It passes the addresses of the saved registers and the Kprobe struct to the handler you defined, then executes it. Kprobes can be registered by symbol name or address. Within the symbol name, the address will be handled by the kernel. Then the attacker can use return-oriented programming to insert some malicious codes to execute or receive the target data by a tampered pointer. KASLR mitigates these kinds of attacks because the attacker cannot immediately know the target address, but a brute-force attack can still work.

The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. Then, either way, it calls the original open function with the same parameters, to actually open the file. This approach is dangerous, because of the possibility of two kernel modules changing the same system call. Imagine we have two kernel modules, A and B.

However, if A is removed and then B is removed, the system will crash. Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for production use. What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right away? Go away! But if you are a kernel module and you are bothered by a process, you have another possibility.

You can put the process to sleep until you can service it. After all, processes are being put to sleep by the kernel and woken up all the time that is the way multiple processes appear to run on the same time on a single CPU. This kernel module is an example of this. The easiest way to keep a file open is to open it with:. Then, the function calls the scheduler to context switch to a different process, one which has some use for the CPU. It then returns and the process which just closed the file can continue to run.

In time, the scheduler decides that that process has had enough and gives control of the CPU to another process. Eventually, one of the processes which was in the queue will be given control of the CPU by the scheduler. This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process is concerned, it issued the open system call and the system call has not returned yet. The process does not know somebody else used the CPU for most of the time between the moment it issued the call and the moment it returned.

It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes that the file is still open and go on with its life. So we will use tail -f to keep the file open in the background, while trying to access it with another process again in the background, so that we need not switch to a different vt. This is important so users can, for example, kill the process before it receives the file. There is one more point to remember. The kernel is supposed to respond by returning with the error code -EAGAIN from operations which would otherwise block, such as opening the file in this example.

Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having multiple threads. In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start before another. The machine structure stores the completion states for the two threads.

If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the same memory, then it is possible that strange things can happen or your system can lock up. To avoid this, various types of mutual exclusion kernel functions are available. These indicate if a section of code is "locked" or "unlocked" so that simultaneous attempts to run it can not happen.

You can use kernel mutexes mutual exclusions in much the same manner that you might deploy them in userland. This may be all that is needed to avoid collisions in most cases. The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the lock then they will not be forgotten and will activate when the unlock happens, using the flags variable to retain their state.

Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclusively read from something or write to something. Like the earlier spinlocks example, the one below shows an "irq safe" situation in which if other functions were triggered from irqs which might also read and write to whatever you are concerned with then they would not disrupt the logic.

As before it is a good idea to keep anything done within the lock as short as possible so that it does not hang up the system and cause users to start revolting against the tyranny of your module.

If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations, then there is another way in the multi-CPU and multi-hyperthreaded world to stop other parts of the system from messing with your mojo. By using atomic operations you can be confident that your addition, subtraction or bit flip did actually happen and was not overwritten by some other shenanigans. An example is shown below.

Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel already provided a small set of atomic types by using a bunch of tricky architecture-specific codes. Implementing the atomic types by C11 atomics may allow the kernel to throw away the architecture-specific codes and letting the kernel code be more friendly to the people who understand the standard.

For further details, see:. That is true for developing kernel modules. But in actual use, you want to be able to send messages to whichever tty the command to load the module came from. Then, we look inside that tty structure to find a pointer to a string write function, which we use to write a string to the tty. In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to communicate to the external world.

Flashing keyboard LEDs can be such a solution: It is an immediate way to attract attention or to display a status condition. Keyboard LEDs are present on every hardware, they are always visible, they do not need any setup, and their use is rather simple and non-intrusive, compared to writing to a tty or a file.

From v4. Also, the function prototype of the callback, containing a unsigned long argument, will prevent work from any type checking. Furthermore, the function prototype with unsigned long argument may be an obstacle to the control-flow integrity. Thus, it is better to use a unique prototype to separate from the cluster that takes an unsigned long argument.

Before Linux v4. Since Linux v4. One of the reasons why API was changed is it need to coexist with the old version interface. The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded. If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs, there might yet be some other tricks to try. If you activate that you get low level access to the serial port.

If you find yourself porting the kernel to some new and former unsupported architecture, this is usually amongst the first things that should be implemented. Logging over a netconsole might also be worth a try. While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here, there are some things to be aware of. Debugging is almost always intrusive. Adding debug code can change the situation enough to make the bug seem to disappear. Thus, you should keep debug code to a minimum and make sure it does not show up in production code.

There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets are a quick and easy way of scheduling a single function to be run. For example, when triggered from an interrupt, whereas work queues are more complicated but also better suited to running multiple things in a sequence.

Here is an example tasklet module. So with this example loaded dmesg should show:. Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers are discussing about getting rid of tasklet in linux kernel. The tasklet callback runs in atomic context, inside a software interrupt, meaning that it cannot sleep or access user-space data, so not all work can be done in a tasklet handler.

Also, the kernel only allows one instance of any given tasklet to be running at any given time; multiple different tasklet callbacks can run in parallel. In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded interrupts. To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have done as a response to a process asking for it, either by dealing with a special file, sending an ioctl , or issuing a system call.

But the job of the kernel is not just to respond to process requests. Another job, which is every bit as important, is to speak to the hardware connected to the machine. The first type is when the CPU gives orders to the hardware, the order is when the hardware needs to tell the CPU something.

The second, called interrupts, is much harder to implement because it has to be dealt with when convenient for the hardware, not the CPU. Hardware devices typically have a very small amount of RAM, and if you do not read their information when available, it is lost. A short IRQ is one which is expected to take a very short period of time, during which the rest of the machine will be blocked and no other interrupts will be handled.

A long IRQ is one which can take longer, and during which other interrupts may occur but not interrupts from the same device. If at all possible, it is better to declare an interrupt handler to be long. When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing unless it is processing a more important interrupt, in which case it will deal with this one only when the more important one is done , saves certain parameters on the stack and calls the interrupt handler.

This means that certain things are not allowed in the interrupt handler itself, because the system is in an unknown state.

Linux kernel solves the problem by splitting interrupt handling into two parts. The first part executes right away and masks the interrupt line. Hardware interrupts must be handled quickly, and that is why we need the second part to handle the heavy work deferred from an interrupt handler.

Softirq and its higher level abstraction, Tasklet , replace BH since Linux 2. In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often designed in a way that chains two interrupt controllers, so that all the IRQs from interrupt controller B are cascaded to a certain IRQ from interrupt controller A. Of course, that requires that the kernel finds out which IRQ it really was afterwards and that adds overhead.

To take advantage of them requires handlers to be written in assembler, so they do not really fit into the kernel. They can be made to work similar to the others, but after that procedure, they are no longer any faster than "common" IRQs. SMP enabled kernels running on systems with more than one processor need to solve another truckload of problems.

People still interested in more details, might want to refer to "APIC" now. Usually there is a certain number of IRQs available. How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent. This function will only succeed if there is not already a handler on this IRQ, or if you are both willing to share. Attaching buttons to those and then having a button press do something is a classic case in which you might need to use interrupts, so that instead of having the CPU waste time and battery power polling for a change in input state, it is better for the input to trigger the CPU to then run a particular handling function.

You can change those numbers to whatever is appropriate for your board. Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine.

A common way to do that without rendering the interrupt unavailable for a significant duration is to combine it with a tasklet. This pushes the bulk of the work off into the scheduler. The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional task when an interrupt is triggered. At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely…but that did not work out so well.